Worldwide Activities regarding the Final Disposal of Radioactive Waste

The task of disposal of radioactive waste started when utilisation of nuclear fission for military purposes began in the 1940s and the peaceful utilisation of nuclear power started in 1950. At present, the majority of waste produced is put into interim storage and is thus exposed to the biosphere. First concepts to dispose of radioactive waste were developed as early as the 1950s. For heat-generating waste, the final disposal in deep geological formations of the earth's continental crust is internationally favoured. Low-level wastes with short half-life periods are disposed of in near-surface repositories in most countries. Current activities focus on site selection and safety considerations for the long-term safety of geological repositories as well as on the investigation of geological and man-made barriers to protect the biosphere against impacts of the disposed radioactive waste.

The majority of low-level wastes with short half-life periods is disposed of in near-surface facilities. Near-surface generally means that the repository is constructed at the surface or in shallow depth, and is covered and/or sealed when disposal is finished. Some countries pursue near-surface disposal or, as it is the case in Germany, in deep geological formations. Generally, retrieval of the waste is not intended

In Argentina, the Ezeiza near-surface repository for low level radioactive waste has been operated since 1971. The repository facilities consist of two trenches for disposal of low level solid radioactive waste, 3 ionic exchange beds for low level and very short half-life liquid radioactive waste, and two underground deep silos for structural radioactive waste and sealed sources. It is provided to construct a new repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste at the same site.

In Belgium, Mol-Dessel has been established in 2006 as a site for a repository for low level radioactive waste after completion of a site selection procedure. The planning work and the licensing procedure will be finished up to 2011. The commissioning of the repository is scheduled for 2016.

In Bulgaria, low level radioactive waste from industry, medical sources and research work is disposed in the Novi Han near-surface repository since 1964. The emplacement vaults are inserted 6 m deep in crystalline rock and have a capacity of 600 m³. Most of the waste emplaced in past has not been conditioned.

In the United Kingdom, the Drigg near-surface repository for low level radioactive waste is operated since 1959. The repository is located near the nuclear facilities at Sellafield. The disposal has been performed in concrete vaults with a length of approx. 700 m, a width of 25 m and a depth of 8 m. The disposal of 750.000 m³ of low level radioactive waste has been scheduled up to the year 2050.

At Dounreay (Caithness, Scotland) a new repository for low level radioactive waste will be constructed for the emplacement of the radioactive waste resulting from the decommissioning of the nuclear facilities at the site.

In Finland, two repositories are operated for the disposal of low and intermediate level radio­active waste. The Loviisa repository has been constructed between 1993 to 1997 at a depth of 120 m in granite rocks on the Hastholmen Island. The storage capacity is 113.000 m³.

From 1988 to 1992 the Olkiluoto repository has been built close to a nuclear power plant to receive the operational waste as well as the future decommissioning waste of the nuclear facilities. The repository is arranged in depths between 60 and 100 m in crystalline rocks. The storage capacity is 60.000 m³.

The French repository Centre de la Manche for low and intermediate level radioactive waste has been closed in 1994. Overall 526.650 m³ of waste, predominately from the operation of nuclear power plants, have been emplaced.

After the closure of the Centre de la Manche the Centre de L?Aube near-surface repository has been commissioned in 1992. This repository has a storage capacity of 1 mio. m³ of low and intermediate level radioactive waste and will be operated for 60 years.

Additionally, in 2003 the Morvilliers near-surface repository for very low level radioactive waste from the decommissioning of nuclear facilities started operation. This repository is sited close to the Centre de L?Aube repository and has a storage capacity of 650.000 m³.

In Japan low level radioactive waste has been emplaced in the Rokkasho near-surface repository, which is sited at a nuclear centre, since 1992. The emplacement areas consist of concrete vaults that are plunged in the ground floor. When the vaults have been filled with waste drums, the void volume will be filled with concrete and then closed by a concrete cap and soil. The storage capacity of the repository has been enlarged in two steps up to 400.000 drums (= 80.000 m³). A further upgrading of the capacity to 3 mio. drums (= 600.000 m³) is possible.

At present, in Canada the Kincardine site (Ontario), that is located close to nuclear facilities, will be investigated with regard to its suitability for a geologic repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste. The disposal areas will be arranged in sedimentary rocks at a depth of approx. 660 m and will include operational and decommissioning waste of nuclear power plants.

In Norway, the Himdalen repository for low and intermediate level waste has been commissioned in 1999. Here, plutonium-bearing waste is stored retrievably. The repository consists of 4 caverns in crystalline rock, each for 2.500 210 l-drums. The top of the caverns is approx. 50 m below the ground surface. The repository will be operated until 2030.

Since 1961 the Polish Rózan repository, 90 km north of Warsaw, has been used for low and intermediate level radioactive waste disposal. This repository is sited in a former military area. For disposal purposes former bunker facilities are employed, on one hand, and near-surface concrete vaults embedded in the clayish ground floor, on the other hand.

In Romania, the Baita-Bihor repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste has been established in an exhausted uranium-mine in 1985. In a mountainside the emplacement chambers are drifted in sedimentary rocks above the groundwater table. The repository has been designed for the disposal of 21.000 220 l-drums.

The Swedish SFR repository has been located close to Forsmark nuclear power plant to dispose the low and intermediate level radioactive operational waste of the nuclear facilities. From 1983 to 1988 the repository has been constructed in crystalline rock at a depth of 60 m. The storage capacity is 63.000 m³.

In Slovakia, the Mochovce near-surface repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste has been operated since 2001. The emplacement vaults are constructed in neogen clay and have a storage capacity of 22.320 m³.

The Spanish El Cabril surface repository for low level radioactive waste has been commissioned in 1991. This repository has a storage capacity of 36.000 m³ and corresponds to the disposal concept of the French Centre de l?Aube repository. A significant difference is the retrievable emplacement of the waste in El Cabril.

In the Czech Republic, low and intermediate level radioactive waste has been emplaced at three sites.

The Bratrství Jáchymov repository for waste with natural radionuclides (U+Th-decay sequence) is located in an exhausted Uranium-mine 50 m below the ground surface. Operation started in 1972 und will be continued until 2030.

The Richard repository for waste with man-made radionuclides has been installed in a former chalk mine. The emplacement chambers are approx. 70 m below the ground surface and above the groundwater table. The storage capacity is 8.400 m³. Operation started in 1964 und will be continued until 2070.

Close to the Dukovany nuclear power plant a near-surface repository for low and intermediate level radioactive operational waste is situated. The repository has a storage capacity of 55.000 m³ and has been commissioned in 1995. It is designed also to dispose the decommissioning waste of the nuclear facilities.

In South Afrika  there are two near surface repositories for radioactive waste:

Thabana Hill / Radiation Hill (Pelindaba) and the Vaalputs National Waste Repository (Northern Cape). In Thabana Hill operational waste of the Safari research reactor as well as low level radioactive waste from medicine and industry are disposed, in Vaalputs operational waste of the Koeberg nuclear power plant and other low and intermediate level radioactive waste are emplaced. The repository concept is identical for both facilities: it consists of 7 m deep concrete vaults, that will be closed by a concrete cap and soil after completion of emplacement.

In Hungary, the Püspökszilágy near surface repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste started operation in 1976. The disposal vaults are constructed in clayish Quarternary deposits and have a storage capacity of 5.000 m³, which is widely exhausted. A few years ago, the authorities ordered the retrievability of the waste and from that time, the backfill­ling of the waste packages in the vaults with concrete has been stopped. Therefore, currently the facilities only act as an interim storage facility.

In 2007 the construction of a new repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste started in Bátaapáti. The repository will be excavated in granite formations 250 m below the ground surface. Commissioning of the first disposal chambers is provided for 2009.

In the USA, six near-surface repositories for low level radioactive waste have been constructed in the early sixties: Beatty (Nevada), Maxey Flats (Kentucky), West Valley (New York), Richland (Washington), Sheffield (Illinois) and Barnwell (South Carolina). Two of these repositories are still in operation: Richland and Barnwell. The Beatty repository has been closed in 1992, the other three sites between 1975 and 1978. The disposal concept is identical for all repositories: they consist of concrete vaults embedded in the subsurface. After completion of emplacement the vaults will be closed with concrete caps and a soil layer.

Currently, a site selection procedure runs in Ohio for a new repository for low and intermediate level radioactive waste.

The WIPP (Waste Isolation Pilot Plant) is situated close to Carlsbad (New Mexiko). It is a deep geological repository for transuranium waste from military facilities. The repository has been constructed in a salt formation at a depth of 650 m. The WIPP has been commissioned in 1999 and has a storage capacity of approx. 180.000 m³.

There is general agreement that this waste can only be safely stored in deep geological formations. However, except for the WIPP (Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in the USA, salt formation, in operation since 1999, for waste with a high content of alpha emitting radionuclides from atomic bomb manufacturing) no final repository in deep geological formations of the Earths's crust is yet in operation. This situation is not expected to change within the next 10 to 20 years.

Originally, waste disposal in deep geological formations was designed as truly final disposal. In recent years, however, alternatives to final disposal are also being discussed. Among other things, a demonstration or test period and a phase of simplified retrievability prior to sealing the final repository are being considered.

In Belgium, clay is being investigated regarding its suitability as a host rock for a repository for spent fuel. For this objective, the Mol underground laboratory is operated at a depth of 220 m in the Boom Clay formation. The commissioning of a repository for spent fuel is scheduled for 2035.

In 1989, China started the geological exploration of a candidate site for a repository for spent fuel at Beishan in the Gobi desert. Site exploration will be completed until 2010. The licensing procedure will start in 2020 and the repository may be put into service in 2040.

In France, it has been decided to investigate comprehensively two candidate sites ? one in clay and one in crystalline rock - after completion of the site selection procedure. At Bure, the suitability of clay as a host rock for the final disposal of radioactive waste is being investigated in an underground laboratory. A site for appropriate investigations in crystalline rock has not yet been selected.

Due to local geological reasons, Sweden provides the final disposal of spent fuel in crystalline rock. From 2002 to 2007, the Forsmark and Oskarshamn sites have been investigated with regard to their suitability as repository locations. Currently, the results from exploration will be analysed and a safety assessment as well as an environmental impact assessment will be performed. Further data for the host rock and the repository technology assessment will result from the investigations at the Äspö underground laboratory near Oskarshamn. In 2009, the site selection procedure will be completed. Start of repository operations will be 2020 at the earliest.

In Finland, Olkiluoto has been chosen in 2001 as a repository site for spent fuel disposal in granite rock after completion of a site selection procedure . At present, the Onkalo underground laboratory is under construction to verify the suitability of the crystalline rocks as host rocks for a repository, and to test repository technology. The appropriate investigations shall be completed until 2011. The licensing procedure and repository construction will be finished until 2020.

In the United Kingdom, the governmental responsibilities in the nuclear field have been reorganised in 2005. The ?Nuclear Decommissioning Authority (NDA)? has been implemented to be competent for the decommissioning of nuclear facilities and for radioactive waste management. An expert committee (CoRWM) has been entrusted with the development of a strategy for radioactive waste management. As a result the committee proposed the final disposal of high level radioactive waste in deep geological formations. The appropriate conceptual planning is in preparation. Additionally, alternatives like transmutation or recycling will be analysed.

In the USA, the desert site Yucca Mountain (Nevada) is being examined with regard to its suitability for the final disposal of high level radioactive waste and spent fuel. The scheduled repository will be constructed in volcanic tuff formations at a depth of 200 to 425 m below ground surface, but above the groundwater table.

At present, the Japanese radioactive waste management organisation NUMO enforces a site selection procedure to identify candidate sites for the final disposal of high level radioactive waste. For this procedure, public acceptance at potential sites is of high relevance.